Biology and Biotechnology

 1. Respiratory substrates are the organic substances , which are…………..during  respiration to liberate energy  (1) Oxidised (2) Reduced  (3) Synthesised (4) both 1 and 2 2. Which of the following statement is true for the given equation? (1) pyruvic acid is oxidatively  decarboxylated to form acetyl CoA (2) it needs a multienzyme complex (3) 5 essential cofactors required are lipoic acid, CoA, NAD, TPP and Mg2+ (4) all of the above 3. Lactic acid formation can be observed in  (1) Pea seeds (2) Muscle cells (3) Cereal seeds (4) Groundnut 4. FAD is electron acceptor during oxidation  of which of the following? (1) a-ketoglutarate Succinyl Co-A (2) Succinic acid Fumaric acid (3) Succinyl Co-A Succinic acid (4) Fumaric acid Malic acid 5. The released energy obtained by oxidation is stored as (1) A concentration gradient across a  membrane (2) ADP (3) ATP (4) NAD+ 6. Acetaldehyde is intermediate product in  (1) lactic acid fermentation (2) ethyl a...

  Narrowing of an artery The tissues distal to the narrow point become ischaemic. The cells may receive enough blood to meet their minimum needs, but not enough to cope with an increase in metabolic rate, e.g. when muscle activity is increased. This causes acute cramp-like ischaemic pain, which disappears when exertion stops. Cardiac muscle and skeletal muscles of the lower limb are most commonly affected. Ischaemic pain in the heart is called angina pectoris (p. 120), and in the lower limbs, intermittent claudication. Occlusion of an artery When an artery is completely blocked, the tissues it supplies rapidly undergo degeneration and die from ischaemia, which leads to infarction. If a major artery supplying a large amount of tissue is affected, the consequences are likely to be more severe than if the obstruction occurs in a minor vessel. If the tissue is well provided with a collateral circulation (such as the circulus arteriosus provides in the brain), tissue damage is less t...

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How many Phases of Digestion? Cephalic Phase During the cephalic phase of digestion, the smell, sight, thought,or initial taste of food activates neural centers in the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, and brain stem. The brain stem then activates The facial (VII),glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus (X) nerves.The facial and glossopharyngeal nerves stimulate the salivary glands to secrete saliva, while the vagus nerves stimulate the gastric glands to secrete gastric juice. The purpose of the cephalic phase of digestion is to prepare the mouth and stomach for food that is about to be eaten. Gastric Phase : Once food reaches the stomach, the gastric phase of digestion begins. Neural and hormonal mechanisms regulate the gastric phase of digestion to promote gastric secretion and gastric motility. • Neural regulation. Food of any kind distends the stomach and stimulates stretch receptors in its walls.Chemoreceptors in the stomach monitor the pH of the stomach chyme. When the stomach walls are di...

What is Negative Feedback Mechanisms ? In human body systems controlled by negative feedback, the effector response decreases or negates the effect of the original stimulus, maintaining or restoring homeostasis (thus the term negative feedback).  1) Control of body temperature is similar to the non-physiological example of a domestic central heating system. 2)  The thermostat (temperature detector) is sensitive to changes in room temperature (variable factor). 3)  The thermostat is connected to the boiler control unit (control centre), which controls the boiler (effector).  4)  The thermostat constantly compares the information from the detector with the preset temperature and, when necessary, adjustments are made to alter the room temperature.  5)  When the thermostat detects the room temperature is low, it switches the boiler on. The result is output of heat by the boiler, warming the room.  6)  When the preset temperature is reached, the ...

  Respiratory System Anatomy • Describe the anatomy and histology of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. • Identify the functions of each respiratory system structure. The respiratory system (RES-pi-ra-toˉr-e¯) consists of the nose, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchi, and lungs . Its parts can be classified according to either structure or function. Structurally, the respiratory system consists of two parts:  (1) The upper respiratory system includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and associated structures;  (2) the lower respiratory system includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Functionally, the respiratory system also consists of two parts.  (1) The conducting zone consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs. These include the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles; their function is to filter...

  Introduction : The body contains not only millions of different T cells but also millions of different B cells, each capable of responding to a specific antigen. Cytotoxic T cells leave lymphatic tissues to seek out and destroy a foreign antigen, but B cells stay put. In the presence of a foreign antigen, a specific B cell in a lymph node, the spleen, or mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue becomes activated. Then it undergoes clonal selection, forming a clone of plasma cells and memory cells. Plasma cells are the effector cells of a B cell clone; they secrete specific antibodies, which in turn circulate in the lymph and blood to reach the site of invasion. What does activate clonal Selection? Activation and Clonal Selection of B Cells During activation of a B cell, an antigen binds to B-cell receptors(BCRs). These integral transmembrane proteins are chemically similar to the antibodies that eventually are secreted by plasma cells. Although B cells can respond to an unproce...

What is antigen and antiggen receptor and how its work? Antigens and Antigen Receptors Antigens have two important characteristics: immunogenicity and reactivity. Immunogenicity is the ability to provoke an immune response by stimulating the production of specific antibodies, the proliferation of specific T cells, or both. The term antigen derives from its func- tion as an antibody generator. Reactivity is the ability of the antigen to react specifically with the antibodies or cells it provoked. Strictly speaking, immunologists define antigens as substances that have reactivity; substances with both immunogenicity and reactivity are considered complete antigens. Commonly, however, the term antigen implies both immunogenicity and reactivity, and we use the word in this way.  Entire microbes or parts of microbes may act as antigens. Chemical components of bacterial structures such as flagella, capsules, and cell walls are antigenic, as are bacterial toxins. Nonmicrobial examples ...

  What is spleen and what is importance of Spleen? Spleen The oval spleen is the largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in the body, measuring about 12 cm (5 in.) in length .It is located in the left hypochondriac region between the stomach and diaphragm. The superior surface of the spleen is smooth and convex and conforms to the concave surface of the diaphragm. Neighboring organs make indentations in the visceral surface of the spleen—the gastric impression (stomach), the renal impres- sion (left kidney), and the colic impression (left colic flexure of large intestine). Like lymph nodes, the spleen has a hilum. Through it pass the splenic artery, splenic vein, and efferent lymphatic vessels.  A capsule of dense connective tissue surrounds the spleen and is covered in turn by a serous membrane, the visceral peritoneum. Trabeculae extend inward from the capsule. The capsule plus tra- beculae, reticular fibers, and fibroblasts constitute the stroma of the spleen; the p...

What is Lymphatic system? Lymphatic system Structure and Function The lymphatic system (lim-FAT-ik) consists of a fluid called lymph, vessels called lymphatic vessels that transport the lymph,a number of structures and organs containing lymphatic tissue (lymphocytes within a filtering tissue), and red bone marrow. The lymphatic system assists in circulating body fluids and helps defend the body against disease-causing agents. As you will see shortly, most components of blood plasma filter through blood capillary walls to form interstitial fluid. After interstitial fluid passes into lymphatic vessels, it is called lymph (LIMF - clear fluid). The major difference between interstitial fluid and lymph is location: Interstitial fluid is found between cells, and lymph is located within lymphatic vessels and lymphatic tissue. Lymphatic tissue is a specialized form of reticular connective tissue  that contains large numbers of lymphocytes. Recall from Chapter 19 that lymphocytes are agran...